Abstractness of Racism - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1499 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2019/02/05 Category Society Essay Level High school Tags: Racism Essay Did you like this example? The United States of America the piping hot, effervescing â€Å"melting pot of the world†. This term was coined in the late 1880’s due to mass European emigration for various reasons. Instead of refusing these fleeing souls, the idea of acceptance, regardless of race, was universally preached. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Abstractness of Racism" essay for you Create order The melting pot was used to symbolize the creation of a cohesive, new American culture and identity. This, in some ways did occur. However, this preconception is more than wrong. Our society is a salad bowl; an uneven mixture of different ingredients mixed randomly that all come together to represent a salad yet still hold fast to their own, respective identities. This â€Å"salad† has had and still has many problems. Throughout history and in recent times, Racial tensions have proliferated greatly and have become more profound and frequent, raising questions about the future of our nation, due to our inability to resolve these domestic issues. As complicated as these issues are, they are based on the abstract concept that is Race. Race is not real. Race is merely a social category we choose and are influenced to abide by, not something that is scientifically backed nor is it genetically driven. Through the examination of societal implicit biases, the true science behind human identity and appearance and decades of research, the overbearing blanket perspective that Race is hereditary will sanguinely dissolve or change. Conceptual Abstraction: Is Math Racist? To challenge a generalized and accepted notion, one must attack directly. Race is not a biological nor genetic attribute. Race, similar to concepts like Arithmetic, are abstract – â€Å"existing in thought or as an idea but not having a physical or concrete existence† and defined as ‘insufficiently factual†, â€Å"difficult to understand† and â€Å"dissociated from any specific instance by Merriam Webster. All of these definitions ring true for the topic of race. Adam Rutherford, British geneticist and author of A Brief History of Everyone Who Ever Lived, states that he is â€Å"unaware of any group of people that can be defined by their DNA in a scientifically satisfactory way† and proceeds to states that in terms of science and â€Å"as far as genetics are concerned, race does not exist† (Rutherford 218-219). With this, Rutherford also states that genetic sciences are founded on the â€Å"studies of racial inequalities of a racistâ⠂¬ . To solidify this argument, that race is abstract we compare it to the previous mentioned abstract concept, mathematics. Francis Galton, the Victorian scientist and half cousin of Charles Darwin, measured the biometrics of different people of different ethnic backgrounds and categorized them, mathematically, through statistics. Galton utilizes this quantitative data to validate He labels Chinese as â€Å"materialistic†, â€Å"Negroes† as vastly inferior, â€Å"Hindoos† as lacking in â€Å"strength and business habits† and that the â€Å"Arab[s]†¦Ã¢â‚¬  are merely â€Å"eaters †¦of other men’s produce†¦ a destroyer† (Rutherford 227). Despite his biased views and corrupted motivation for this development, Galton invented modern statistical tools we continue to use to this day and began the trek in human biometrics. He introduced the idea of â€Å"nature versus nurture†, which propounds conflict between these two factors, when in actuality they work together conjunctly. (Rutherford). Race has played a significant role in the studying and research of genetics. Galton was not the only prominent geneticist who spouted racist views. James Watson, co-discoverer of the double helix structure of DNA – expressed racist views shown by his various tests, measuring the capacity and actuality of human intelligence in different categories, groups and settings, all of which based upon the color of one’s skin (Malloy). Though morally, one wishes that the way he talks about race has no logical legitimacy but there is some truth to it. Jason Malloy states that Watson’s â€Å"Intelligence tests do reveal large differences between European and sub-Saharan African nations, the evidence does link these differences to universally valued outcomes, both within and between nations† (Malloy). One can easily argue that this is due to environmental factors. No research is needed to justify the fact the European cities are more developed than Sub-Saharan communiti es. With development, there is a greater chance for better education and employment. Nonetheless, the science which was developed to validate intellect capacity due to physical differences between humans, has ironically done the opposite; Modern Genetics have proven that there is no essential foundation for people of different groups. The quickest rebuttal to this is the fact that different groups of people have different values in terms of pigmentation. Skin color, and specifically the lightness or darkness, is determined by one gene mutation. Elizabeth Kolbert of the National Geographic explains the simplicity of the difference in skin color as â€Å"the mutation that’s most responsible for giving Europeans lighter skin is a single tweak in a gene known as SLC24A5, which consists of roughly 20,000 base pairs. In one position, where most sub-Saharan Africans have a G, Europeans have an A (Kolbert)†. The difference of one letter, one chemical is the basis for our separation and categorization of humans. Yes, there are various inherited and physical trai ts, the most recognizable being physiognomies, that are concomitant with certain populations, however, these traits do not belong solely to groups they are initially categorized with or with any group. A clear example of this are the physical similarities between various Hispanic people and those of Middle Eastern descent. Common physical features do not equate to common genetics but still are grouped into a racial category. In his article, Rutherford presents this example that Tibetans, who are visually similar to many other Asians, would be grouped as Chinese. However, Tibetans are genetically adapted to high altitude, rendering Chinese people more similar to Europeans than their superficially similar neighbors, in terms of genetics and adaptation (Rutherford). These regional adaptations are concrete, yet the means in which we comprehend and act upon that physical difference is based solely upon the if we categorize these features with other features, which then get grouped as commonalties for a race. Humans are too â€Å"horny and mobile†, and in that way we are the same. We are not separated by Race Race doesn’t exist, yet racism does. A question which is utilized frequently in order to solidify the fact that race is real is that â€Å"If Race Is Not Real, why is Racism Real?† Upon first encounter, one sees it as common sense. There’s no way Race is not real if people still treat others differently. This is the intended point. People and Society naturally categorize things, as stated in the Blindspot. However, one can still choose how they interact and go about this individual or groups of those different from oneself. Back to Math, Statistics, developed by Galton, were solely invented in order to prove White Superiority over other races. Math itself is an abstract concept in which society as a whole has globally accepted as a truth. No one questions if One is One or if 76 is truly 76, it is merely known and understood. Same goes for race. No one questions why we automatically categorize people with attributes. There is nothing wrong with categorizing people into groups, until these groups are inaccur ately labeled in some ways. A group of Jews, whether it be those of Israel or those of the Jewish faith, are a group of Jews, not stingy or frugal. The thin, almost-transparent line between categorization and stereotyping must be broadened, in order to defer this active racism. Additionally, Racism served, and can be argued that it still serves, as justification. The media does an unfortunately excellent job of playing off this tension and vulnerability by utilizing almost a macro-level version of confirmation bias and general stereotypes. The best known examples are White Extremists such as the Ku Klux Klan. Their overtly violent racism is merely justified by the fact that White Culture is American Culture, expressed through chants such as â€Å"You will not replace us†. Another form of justification is the need for them to ameliorate society. Some felt a moral responsibility to Eugenics, the negative connotation of this word, which played a large role in the forced and unknown sterilization of 20,000 minority men and women in California. Seen as helping control poverty and crime in the United States, these medical staff prided themselves as heroes, when really they committed 20,000+ murders. This shows the solidifying of racism. This engrained idealism of racial superiority has plagued our nation for too long. Our natural categorization is not wrong, but the values and that certain groups are branded by are. The word â€Å"Race† typically is utilized in a negative means, in order to differentiate different people. Race was and is a societal construct of institutionalism, developed in order to justify the oppression of those of color. Race is not real, but people who utilize physical and ethnic differences are. The only way to ameliorate this issue is by breaking societal norms and pushing for more integration, breaking known mold that is the â€Å"common† American and smoldering the various ethnic identities into one, conjunctive melting pot.

Essay about Medicinal Value of Yoga - 2978 Words

Medicinal Value of Yoga What most Westerners picture when you say Yoga, is an Indian guru in cloth shorts or a long flowing robe, twisted up in a some sort of a pretzel pose. You may picture the Yoga practitioner in peak physical shape, as well as, being a very peaceful human being. It is attaining this goal that is the aim of Yoga, but what most of people dont realize, is exactly how much goes into achieving this state. Yoga time honored teaching on how to achieve physical health, psychological well being and spiritual peace. This can be achieved by concentrating for hours in a state of complete focus, know as meditation. While mediating, the practitioner assumes various body positions known as asanas, that allows for maximum†¦show more content†¦Yoga exercises (physical, mental or spiritual) based on eastern metaphysical assumptions designed to aid in enlightenment or self-realization. Goals sometimes include Altered States of consciousness or uniting the practitioner with the impersonal pant heistic God. Yoga philosophy is based on the concept of Reincarnation, the Upanishads and other Hindu scripture. In this essay I would like to briefly explore the primary branches of Yoga: Karma, Bhakti, Juana, and Raja Yoga and point out their advantages and pitfalls as well as point out the value of their practice as it pertains to keep the body healthy and free from disease. ): Yoga can be experienced on many different levels for example: as a way to relax after a long stressful day; or a more physically demanding focus on strengthening and invigorating the body; as a more therapeutic practice for a particular physical difficulty or ailment; or as a path to spiritual enlightenment to reach a higher state of consciousness and a union with the Divine. Medicinal Value of Yoga In India, yoga has been practiced for thousands of years, and for the past 80 years, western scientists have studied its use as a therapy in various disorders. A session of yoga lasts about 20 minutes and includes a secession of postures progressing from simple to complex with simultaneous, structured, deep breathing. Yoga enables a person to control many physiological aspects including metabolic rate andShow MoreRelatedHealth, Illness And Wellness2522 Words   |  11 Pagesof health, illness and wellness and my own personal ideologies about health, family beliefs and cultural health concepts which could affect the health and wellbeing. My visual presentation represents mammography for Visualization for breast cancer, yoga meditation, home remedies, nutritious diet and hand washing. How they impact and influence me in supporting my health and health needs of my family. I also discuss the influence of these conceptions on my personal life and how all these apply to myRead MoreHealth , Illness And Wellness2377 Words   |  10 Pagesof health, illness and wellness and my own personal ideologies about health, family beliefs and cultural health concepts which could affect the health and wellbeing. My visual presentation represents, mammography for Visualization for breast cancer, yoga meditation, hand washing, home remedies and nutritious diet. How they impact and influence me in supporting my health and health needs of my family. I also discuss the influence of these conceptions on my personal life and how all these apply to myRead MoreCareer Planning Guidelines : State Of Employment Essay1644 Words   |  7 Pagessince we have such a large number of requests we may see as clashing. 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Some of these foodstuffs/ herbs may be quite tasty in and of themselves, and might be desired as a taste enhancer even should their putative medicinal value be provenRead MoreA Study on the Employee Welfare Measures Ai Nagarjuna Ayurvedic Herbal Concentratesltd8247 Words   |  33 Pageswelfare measures of Nagarjuna from the employees’ point of view. 4. To provide some valuable suggestions for improving the existing welfare measure of the company. SCOPE OF THE STUDY In a world of changing values, where ideologies are rapidly under going transformation, rigid statements about the field of labour welfare need to be revised. Labour welfare work is increasing with changing opportunities and need to meet varying

Keynesian vs Monetarist Economy Free Essays

Economics for Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure Keynesians versus Monetarists Faculty responsible: J. Heller Ismail EL HASSANI Humanity has known in its history long periods of growth with the Agrarian Revolution, the Industrial Revolution, the Oil era and now the Information’s one. From the last period of sustained growth is born the myth of continuous and eternal growth. We will write a custom essay sample on Keynesian vs Monetarist Economy or any similar topic only for you Order Now However, the scarcity of natural resources and the awareness of the negative effects of economic activities suggest that humanity may live a long period of stagnation. In fact, it has already experienced long periods of recession. That is the reason why we should prepare ourselves to sustain growth rather than calling it as our ancestors called rain. In order to achieve this goal, we can follow different economic philosophies such as Keynesianism or Monetarist economies. In this work, we will focus more on Keynesianism. Firstly, we will discover the history of this theory and then define it. In addition, we will analyse and describe all the components of this theory. Finally, we will be comparing the two approaches to demonstrate that Keynesianism is much more effective and brings more advantages than Monetarists. John Maynard Keynes was born in England in 1883 until his death in April 1946. Keynes was certainly the greatest economist of the twentieth century (Clark, 2008). Even today he returns often in the foreground: the known subprime financial crisis in late 2009 led a great business newspaper to elect him â€Å"Man of the Year† (Diever, 2010). Keynes’ thinking was very different from the others, this is the main reason his thoughts were terribly combated by anti-Keynesian. However it is still standing until our day while periods of economic crisis have put his theory in the spotlight again (Diever, 2010). Because it was not only an economist but also a philosopher, mathematician, man of letters, arts and culture, John Maynard Keynes was able to equal in the previous century Karl Marx, Francois Quesnay in the eighteenth or William Petty in the seventeenth. He managed to dominate the economics of his time, knead it, model it, then transformed and enhanced it in the hands of the generations following. He has been for a long time in the protective shadow of Alfred Marshall, the great apostle of market equilibrium; But once out of the traditional ideologies, he runs through his own path with an impressive force. He wrote the book known as â€Å"The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money†, which was published in London in 1936. It is the main work of John Maynard Keynes , The General Theory which contain 24 chapters is primarily a theory of employment. It was very well received in 1936 because it offered a plausible solution to the distressing problem of unemployment (unemployment rate of over 10% in Britain) . The general theory aims to present the operation of the economic system as a whole (also called economic circuit). We can then say that Keynes theory is in a macro-economic level (Pettinger , 2008). The principle of his economic approach was based on a logic and circular flow of money; when the expenses increase, revenues increase as well, which will lead to more spending that will result once again for more income. This flow of money is simple to understand, and to Keynes, the key is to spend. Indeed, each person spending causes the benefit of another person; and the person who perceived the money will in her turn spend it, which will go towards the benefit of a third person, and so on †¦ After the first signs of the Great Depression in 1929, the nature of people have led them amass their money and let him sleep for fear of being in need. This has lead to a decrease in spending and hence lower flow circulation. In doing so, we maintain the economy at a standstill and depression bursts. Following Keynes’ theory, in order to overcome a critical economic situation, it is necessary for the government to intervene. In fact, his theory advocates of government financial interventions by increasing the money supply or investing in the country (Pettinger , 2008). But unfortunately, during the Great Depression, it was not one of the most popular solutions. Keynes thought about involving the government is very different from the popular economic thought, which preceded it. Basically, Keynesianism is against the practice of excessive savings and not enough spending or consumption in an economy. Today people who are saying they are Keynesians are more or less those who are in favour of the state intervening in the economy while monetarists’ aim set on providing stability to the system by controlling the money supply (DeNardo, 2008). On one hand, Keynes provoked a revolution in economic. His theory became to be very positively received, because it could explain why during the economy of the Great Recession there was still unemployment; a fact that a basic economy could not explain. It is in this context that Keynes became very popular. In fact, previously in economics the classical argument would have been: while facing economic condition, the salary will drop as well as the cost of work, and people will automatically get employed again. On the other hand, there are two types of Keynesians: fiscal Keynesians and monetarist Keynesians. We believe that fiscal Keynesians are more close to the idea of Keynes, which explain that in a period of a downturn in a recession, the State can take over the investment function by investing itself like an entrepreneur (Jeremy, 2011). The most recent example of such a Keynesian approach to the economy will be the State plans of china during 2008 downturn, in which the State has really employed a lot of people to build bridges airports, roads etc†¦ However, to be effective, the state intervention should not create more risks for the economy than it provokes benefits by employing more people. Meaning that a State, which is already in debt, will not be advised to use such an approach. It will create such a negative outlook for the fiscal side of the economy (Pettinger , 2008). Then the individual local entrepreneurs would stop any investments for their businesses and would definitely not invest on new projects. Indeed, the drawbacks of going more into debt to make the State an employer can very easily out ways the benefits of employing more people in a downturn (Jeremy, 2011). In Western Europe for example, they have lost this capacity of applying this type of Keynesian approach. Most of them have more than 80 % of debt in GDP and already facing a lot of dangers in the financial market (Gerald , 2009). Nevertheless, The monetarist Keynesians type is a useful way to use Keynes theory without government spending; they have lost the fiscal ability to intervene. In fact, this type of approach calls the use of the Central Banks or the Federal Reserve (U. S. A) to buy treasury bunds from the government and print more money to increase the activity. Completely at the opposite Spectrum of Keynesians who wants to intervene within an economy, these are called monetarists. They believe that money is neutral, meaning that it is not because you double the amount of money in an economy that you will be producing more (Cowen, 2012). Each unit of money that you are doubled will be worth for the economy by creating the phenomenon of inflation. Thus the role of authorities is very reduced. Friedman, who is the leader of this ideology, will be advocating the stable growth in the money supply, which means that the Central Banks have to maintain a regular rate (Cowen, 2012). However, we found that Friedman’s assumption is false. First, Professor M. Friedman is most famous for the following equation: MV =PT; where M equal Money, V was representative of the Volacity, P equal Prices and T represented Transactions (DeNardo, 2008). Most people think that this formula was his contribution to the monetary theory and he was very famous for this. However, during our research we discovered that many economics before Friedman used this formula. In addition to that, following his monetary theory, it is possible to control the money supply so that you can affect the performance of the economy; that the instability in the money supply is responsible for recessions and depressions. Today, the events of the 2008 recession have proven that Friedman’s assumption of controlling the money supply is a false one. Indeed, we all know that bank lending is the key to money supply. However, nowadays the banks do not trust each other, and they refuse to lend to each other. Without lending, this is clear that the money supply will decrease indefinitely. The principal consequences of this approach will be the reduction of velocity of money as people do fewer transactions. This decrease in velocity and money supply will lead consumers to do fewer purchases and businessmen fewer investments. It was proven in the 1930s in America, which was called liquidity trap. To conclude, we can say that both economies have their advantages and disadvantages. However, the Keynesian one seems more applicable nowadays in some countries in order to overcome this recession and sustain a growth. Few decades before, it was said that most economic theories, including Monetarists, were preaching individualism, competition and non-intervention of the State. The sovereign functions (Police, Army, Justice), the construction of public edifices, the respect of competition’s rules were their principal matters at that time. The historical reality is however different: back in the days during the Industrial Revolution, the State intervened in many countries to ensure the â€Å"takeoff† of their economy. In France, the State intervened in the development of railways and agriculture (tariffs Meline 1896). England adopted the Act Enclosures for agricultural land. The U. S. intervened in the development of the railway. Germany established protectionist measures with Frederic List (1789-1846). Finally in Japan, during the Meiji era (1868), the State created the first companies in order to sell them to families after, â€Å"Zaibatsus† (Gerald , 2009). Moreover, after the crisis of 1929, the New Deal was an important ideological impact in the United States with a significant change in the conception of the role of the state: the state becomes interventionnist. (Gerald , 2009) We can consider that Keynesians’ believes and thoughts were always adopted in some of the rude moments of our economic history. Despite some difficulties, it have always brought positive results to the evolution of the economy; and we all remember John Maynard Keynes as the most remarkable economists of the history. As far as we are concerned, we strongly believe that the Keynesian theory, depiste its disadvantages, brings more benefits to the society and to people’s lives. After his death, Keynes’ ideas were preached by his disciples; the mistake was to carry on the same methods during the post war situation and not try to adapt these methods in order to meat with the current circumstances and avoid another recession. REFERENCES  : Gerald, M. (2009, 04 27). Les politiques economiques. Retrieved from http://www. skyminds. net/economie-et-sociologie/la-regulation-des-activites-sociales/les-politiques-economiques/ Clark, J. M. (2008, 12 09). John maynard keynes. Retrieved from http://www. newworldencyclopedia. org/entry/John_Maynard_Keynes DeNardo, G. (2008, 12 07). Mv=pt a classic equation and monetary policy. Retrieved from http://www. nolanchart. com/article5583-mvpt-a-classic-equation-and-monetary-policy. tml Cowen, T. (2012, 07 30). Business cycles explained: Monetarist theory. Retrieved from http://learnliberty. org/videos/business-cycles-explained-monetarist-theory Pettinger , T. (2008, 12 30). Keynesianism vs monetarism. Retrieved from http://www. economicshelp. org/blog/1113/concepts/keynesianism-vs-monetarism/ Diever, M. (2010). Les principaux courants de pensee economique. Retrieved from http://www. oeconomia. net/private/cours/economiegenerale/CAPET/01. theorieseconomiques. pdf How to cite Keynesian vs Monetarist Economy, Papers Keynesian vs Monetarist Economy Free Essays Economics for Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure Keynesians versus Monetarists Faculty responsible: J. Heller Ismail EL HASSANI Humanity has known in its history long periods of growth with the Agrarian Revolution, the Industrial Revolution, the Oil era and now the Information’s one. From the last period of sustained growth is born the myth of continuous and eternal growth. We will write a custom essay sample on Keynesian vs Monetarist Economy or any similar topic only for you Order Now However, the scarcity of natural resources and the awareness of the negative effects of economic activities suggest that humanity may live a long period of stagnation. In fact, it has already experienced long periods of recession. That is the reason why we should prepare ourselves to sustain growth rather than calling it as our ancestors called rain. In order to achieve this goal, we can follow different economic philosophies such as Keynesianism or Monetarist economies. In this work, we will focus more on Keynesianism. Firstly, we will discover the history of this theory and then define it. In addition, we will analyse and describe all the components of this theory. Finally, we will be comparing the two approaches to demonstrate that Keynesianism is much more effective and brings more advantages than Monetarists. John Maynard Keynes was born in England in 1883 until his death in April 1946. Keynes was certainly the greatest economist of the twentieth century (Clark, 2008). Even today he returns often in the foreground: the known subprime financial crisis in late 2009 led a great business newspaper to elect him â€Å"Man of the Year† (Diever, 2010). Keynes’ thinking was very different from the others, this is the main reason his thoughts were terribly combated by anti-Keynesian. However it is still standing until our day while periods of economic crisis have put his theory in the spotlight again (Diever, 2010). Because it was not only an economist but also a philosopher, mathematician, man of letters, arts and culture, John Maynard Keynes was able to equal in the previous century Karl Marx, Francois Quesnay in the eighteenth or William Petty in the seventeenth. He managed to dominate the economics of his time, knead it, model it, then transformed and enhanced it in the hands of the generations following. He has been for a long time in the protective shadow of Alfred Marshall, the great apostle of market equilibrium; But once out of the traditional ideologies, he runs through his own path with an impressive force. He wrote the book known as â€Å"The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money†, which was published in London in 1936. It is the main work of John Maynard Keynes , The General Theory which contain 24 chapters is primarily a theory of employment. It was very well received in 1936 because it offered a plausible solution to the distressing problem of unemployment (unemployment rate of over 10% in Britain) . The general theory aims to present the operation of the economic system as a whole (also called economic circuit). We can then say that Keynes theory is in a macro-economic level (Pettinger , 2008). The principle of his economic approach was based on a logic and circular flow of money; when the expenses increase, revenues increase as well, which will lead to more spending that will result once again for more income. This flow of money is simple to understand, and to Keynes, the key is to spend. Indeed, each person spending causes the benefit of another person; and the person who perceived the money will in her turn spend it, which will go towards the benefit of a third person, and so on †¦ After the first signs of the Great Depression in 1929, the nature of people have led them amass their money and let him sleep for fear of being in need. This has lead to a decrease in spending and hence lower flow circulation. In doing so, we maintain the economy at a standstill and depression bursts. Following Keynes’ theory, in order to overcome a critical economic situation, it is necessary for the government to intervene. In fact, his theory advocates of government financial interventions by increasing the money supply or investing in the country (Pettinger , 2008). But unfortunately, during the Great Depression, it was not one of the most popular solutions. Keynes thought about involving the government is very different from the popular economic thought, which preceded it. Basically, Keynesianism is against the practice of excessive savings and not enough spending or consumption in an economy. Today people who are saying they are Keynesians are more or less those who are in favour of the state intervening in the economy while monetarists’ aim set on providing stability to the system by controlling the money supply (DeNardo, 2008). On one hand, Keynes provoked a revolution in economic. His theory became to be very positively received, because it could explain why during the economy of the Great Recession there was still unemployment; a fact that a basic economy could not explain. It is in this context that Keynes became very popular. In fact, previously in economics the classical argument would have been: while facing economic condition, the salary will drop as well as the cost of work, and people will automatically get employed again. On the other hand, there are two types of Keynesians: fiscal Keynesians and monetarist Keynesians. We believe that fiscal Keynesians are more close to the idea of Keynes, which explain that in a period of a downturn in a recession, the State can take over the investment function by investing itself like an entrepreneur (Jeremy, 2011). The most recent example of such a Keynesian approach to the economy will be the State plans of china during 2008 downturn, in which the State has really employed a lot of people to build bridges airports, roads etc†¦ However, to be effective, the state intervention should not create more risks for the economy than it provokes benefits by employing more people. Meaning that a State, which is already in debt, will not be advised to use such an approach. It will create such a negative outlook for the fiscal side of the economy (Pettinger , 2008). Then the individual local entrepreneurs would stop any investments for their businesses and would definitely not invest on new projects. Indeed, the drawbacks of going more into debt to make the State an employer can very easily out ways the benefits of employing more people in a downturn (Jeremy, 2011). In Western Europe for example, they have lost this capacity of applying this type of Keynesian approach. Most of them have more than 80 % of debt in GDP and already facing a lot of dangers in the financial market (Gerald , 2009). Nevertheless, The monetarist Keynesians type is a useful way to use Keynes theory without government spending; they have lost the fiscal ability to intervene. In fact, this type of approach calls the use of the Central Banks or the Federal Reserve (U. S. A) to buy treasury bunds from the government and print more money to increase the activity. Completely at the opposite Spectrum of Keynesians who wants to intervene within an economy, these are called monetarists. They believe that money is neutral, meaning that it is not because you double the amount of money in an economy that you will be producing more (Cowen, 2012). Each unit of money that you are doubled will be worth for the economy by creating the phenomenon of inflation. Thus the role of authorities is very reduced. Friedman, who is the leader of this ideology, will be advocating the stable growth in the money supply, which means that the Central Banks have to maintain a regular rate (Cowen, 2012). However, we found that Friedman’s assumption is false. First, Professor M. Friedman is most famous for the following equation: MV =PT; where M equal Money, V was representative of the Volacity, P equal Prices and T represented Transactions (DeNardo, 2008). Most people think that this formula was his contribution to the monetary theory and he was very famous for this. However, during our research we discovered that many economics before Friedman used this formula. In addition to that, following his monetary theory, it is possible to control the money supply so that you can affect the performance of the economy; that the instability in the money supply is responsible for recessions and depressions. Today, the events of the 2008 recession have proven that Friedman’s assumption of controlling the money supply is a false one. Indeed, we all know that bank lending is the key to money supply. However, nowadays the banks do not trust each other, and they refuse to lend to each other. Without lending, this is clear that the money supply will decrease indefinitely. The principal consequences of this approach will be the reduction of velocity of money as people do fewer transactions. This decrease in velocity and money supply will lead consumers to do fewer purchases and businessmen fewer investments. It was proven in the 1930s in America, which was called liquidity trap. To conclude, we can say that both economies have their advantages and disadvantages. However, the Keynesian one seems more applicable nowadays in some countries in order to overcome this recession and sustain a growth. Few decades before, it was said that most economic theories, including Monetarists, were preaching individualism, competition and non-intervention of the State. The sovereign functions (Police, Army, Justice), the construction of public edifices, the respect of competition’s rules were their principal matters at that time. The historical reality is however different: back in the days during the Industrial Revolution, the State intervened in many countries to ensure the â€Å"takeoff† of their economy. In France, the State intervened in the development of railways and agriculture (tariffs Meline 1896). England adopted the Act Enclosures for agricultural land. The U. S. intervened in the development of the railway. Germany established protectionist measures with Frederic List (1789-1846). Finally in Japan, during the Meiji era (1868), the State created the first companies in order to sell them to families after, â€Å"Zaibatsus† (Gerald , 2009). Moreover, after the crisis of 1929, the New Deal was an important ideological impact in the United States with a significant change in the conception of the role of the state: the state becomes interventionnist. (Gerald , 2009) We can consider that Keynesians’ believes and thoughts were always adopted in some of the rude moments of our economic history. Despite some difficulties, it have always brought positive results to the evolution of the economy; and we all remember John Maynard Keynes as the most remarkable economists of the history. As far as we are concerned, we strongly believe that the Keynesian theory, depiste its disadvantages, brings more benefits to the society and to people’s lives. After his death, Keynes’ ideas were preached by his disciples; the mistake was to carry on the same methods during the post war situation and not try to adapt these methods in order to meat with the current circumstances and avoid another recession. REFERENCES  : Gerald, M. (2009, 04 27). Les politiques economiques. Retrieved from http://www. skyminds. net/economie-et-sociologie/la-regulation-des-activites-sociales/les-politiques-economiques/ Clark, J. M. (2008, 12 09). John maynard keynes. Retrieved from http://www. newworldencyclopedia. org/entry/John_Maynard_Keynes DeNardo, G. (2008, 12 07). Mv=pt a classic equation and monetary policy. Retrieved from http://www. nolanchart. com/article5583-mvpt-a-classic-equation-and-monetary-policy. tml Cowen, T. (2012, 07 30). Business cycles explained: Monetarist theory. Retrieved from http://learnliberty. org/videos/business-cycles-explained-monetarist-theory Pettinger , T. (2008, 12 30). Keynesianism vs monetarism. Retrieved from http://www. economicshelp. org/blog/1113/concepts/keynesianism-vs-monetarism/ Diever, M. (2010). Les principaux courants de pensee economique. Retrieved from http://www. oeconomia. net/private/cours/economiegenerale/CAPET/01. theorieseconomiques. pdf How to cite Keynesian vs Monetarist Economy, Essay examples

Sexism in Television Commercials free essay sample

They also deliberately encourage insulting notions of women as stupid, incapable of understanding basic concepts and de facto having no part in the worlds biggest porting event simply because of their sex (Perera). This is an example of the sexist attitudes towards women. Why must women be oblivious to sports Just because theyre female? Many advertising companies dont think how theyre campaigns will effect, but only that it causes attention. Personal hygiene products such as Axe use half naked men and women to advertise. For example then men use the spray and women chase and tackle them like animals. No human being should be portrayed as an animal. And the men in he commercials really show that males should look a certain way in order for women to be attracted to them. Everyone is different and has their own sense of style so these commercials are really downing individuality. We will write a custom essay sample on Sexism in Television Commercials or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Timi Ross Poeppelman, California State University, Sacramento instructor, says They are degrading to both sexes. Its interesting how accepting we are ofa female being objectified as a sex object. If you reversed that and had men acting like [Axe] women do, people would say its horrible. But, some people see it as a Joke and laugh it off. Thats the thing about this advertising campaign: The ads can offend and entertain in equal measures (McManis). Though on the outside looking in, we would think something would be done about it. Many of the commercials we see for home improvement products have the routine stay-at-home mom trying to figure out a way to make her Job easier. These include Glade, Scrubbing Bubbles, Clorox, and Swiffer. The list could go on. In these commercials, the women are seen in the old fashioned way of theyre only good nough to clean and take care of kids. What about fathers who stay at home? Or the working single mother or father who have the same responsibilities and more? These commercials fail to show the reality of everyday life. No men are shown with these responsibilities, making it seem as if they are incapable of such tedious duties. Watching a football game, we can usually find an attractive young lady being swept off her feet by a less attractive man after he opens his beer of choice. Or, if were

Virtue Ethics free essay sample

Albanian’s have a tradition where if a man commits a murder the victim’s family can kill any one of his male relatives in reprisal. If a boy is born into a family where his brother/son was a murderer he has to go into hiding; leaving proper education adequate health care. Can we argue that Albanians are ‘morally wrong to have structured their society in this way?’ and ‘are their values are inferior to our own? ’ Can we argue whether or not, scientifically, one life is better than another? Argues that human well-being always depends of events in the world and states of the human mind – must be scientific truths behind it Mistaking no answers in practice for no answers in principle is a great source of confusion – e. g. 21 US states still allow corporal punishment in schools (majority in the south) Morality should be considered an undeveloped branch of science The scientific communities reluctance to take stand on moral issues makes science appear divorced from the most important questions of human life We must acknowledge that the intellectual terrain actually exists to achieve a science of human flourishing Hypothetical space called the ‘moral landscape’ – peaks corresponded to heights of potential well-being valleys represent the deepest possible suffering. We will write a custom essay sample on Virtue Ethics or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Many people think a universal conception of morality requires us finding moral principles that admit no exception if it is truly wrong to lie, it must always be wrong to lie. If one can find a single exception, any notion of moral truth must be abandoned. Chess the queen (sometimes a good thing to lose your queen) Human knowledge and human values can no longer be kept apart David Hume – ‘no description of the way the world is (facts) can tell us how we ought to behave (morality). G. E. Moore – any attempt to locate moral truths in the natural world was to commit a ‘naturalistic fallacy’

The Defination and Example of Approaches to Social Responsibility Essay Example

The Defination and Example of Approaches to Social Responsibility Essay Example The Defination and Example of Approaches to Social Responsibility Essay The Defination and Example of Approaches to Social Responsibility Essay A company that takes an obstructive stance toward social responsibility attempts to defend its economic priorities by blocking any attempts to point out the companys lack of social responsibility. An obstructive company does not make social responsibility an effort, instead making profits the most important aspect of its business. Some people view obstructive businesses as immoral since they may exploit their employees, pollute natural lands or deceive customers. (Breann Kanobi, eHow Contributor) Example~ IBP, a leading meat-processing firm, has a long ( and undistinguished ) record of breaking environmental protection, labor, and food processing laws and then trying to cover up its offenses. Enron would fall into this category as well. (Portter,Michael E) Defensive Stance In most cases, companies that take a defensive stance towards social responsibility are not particularly responsible. These companies may consider themselves neutral, and they make profits a more important motive than performing actions in a socially responsible way. These companies make a point of following the law to ensure that others cannot take legal action against them. For example, a company may create more waste than necessary, but it will remove of the waste in a legal method rather than dumping it illegally. (Breann Kanobi, eHow Contributor) Example~ Tobacco companies generally take his position in their marketing efforts. In the United States, they are legally required to include warnings to smokers on their products and to limit advertising to prescribed media. Domestically, they follow these rules to the letter of the law but use more aggresive marketing methods in countries that have no such rules. In many Asian and African countries, cigarettes are heavily promoted, contain higher levels of tar and nicotine than those sold in the Unites States, and carry few or no health warning labels. Firms that take this position are also unlikely to cover up wrongdoing, will generally admit yo mistakes, and will take appropriate corrective actions. (Portter,Michael E) Accommodative Stance An accommodating stance signifies that a company believes social responsibility is important and perhaps as important as making a profit. These companies satisfy all legal requirements and attempt to meet ethical standards. An accommodating company does not attempt to hide its actions and remains open about why it takes specific actions. For example, it may decrease its creation of waste, source products that are not tested on animals and pay its employees a fair wage. The company would keep its records open to the public. Though these companies are often socially responsible, they may change their policies in response to criticism. (Breann Kanobi, eHow Contributor) Example~ Both Shell and IBM, for example, will match contributions made by their employees to selected charitable causes. Many organizations respond to requests for donations to Little League, Girl Scouts, youth soccer programs, and so forth. The point is, however, do not necessarily or proactively seek avenues for contributing. (Portter,Michael E) Proactive Stance Like an accommodating company, a proactive company makes social responsibility a priority. Instead of reacting to criticism, a proactive company attempts to remain ahead of the curve when it comes to social responsibility. It may make ethics part of its mission statement and attempt to avoid any harm to the environment or its employees. A proactive company may go out of its way to institute new recycling programs, give all of its employees a living wage and benefits, and donate a portion of its profits to charity. (Breann Kanobi, eHow Contributor) Example~ The Toro Company, Exmark Manufacturing and Dixon Industries Inc. ollectively recalled 62,000 faulty commercial riding mowers. These companies worked directly with their dealers, distributors and customers during the recall campaign to proactively fix or replace the affected units already on the market. Nike is another example of a company that took a proactive stance, responding to criticisms about the labor conditions in the company? s supply chain. Kingfisher, a company that owns the British chain BQ, has successfully implemented a proactive stance on waste reduction, chemicals and green issues. (Brian Bass, Demand Media)

Always a Bridesmaid Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Always a Bridesmaid - Essay Example As she endeavours to make sense of her life, Davenport interviews elderly women who never married and her own mother who once was much sought after. Their stories provide the hilarious part as well as the drudgery in the film. The topic is all about marriage. The documentary is told from the filmmaker's point of view. Growing 30, she is terrified of ending up alone. Working as a wedding videographer, Nina confronts her fears, all the while asking why in the first place she has complicated her life with a noncommittal boyfriend who is five years younger. She cross-examines love interests that died down, interrogates fidgeting brides, including her increasingly nervous boyfriend and gathers advice from many quarters. Coming to terms with her deeply conflicted feeling towards weddings, she feels greatly that she is meant for spinsterhood, but has a burning lust for the opposite sex. Seeing weddings now and then as a videographer only reminds her of this internal battle. This film may be analyzed using the theory of Relational Dialectics. The theory of Relational Dialectics is that of intimate communication taking place in close relationships. Baxter and Montgomery developed this theory in the late 1980's and the early 1990's. The dialectical perspective is that the partners are constantly adjusting to the presence of oppositional, relational forces (Montgomery, 1993). There are many different aspects o

Organisational Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Organisational Culture - Essay Example During the last days of Enron and WorldCom, there was no trace of any organisational culture (Cameron & Quinn, pp. 36-37, 2011). People would go on to establish their own boundaries, rules and approaches and a former employee at Enron labels those days as a â€Å"roller coaster ride at the height of craziness†. On the other hand, employees of companies like Google, Nike, UniLever, Procter & Gamble, Pepsi, Coca Cola, Wal-Mart, Merck, Levis Strauss and others are more likely to know what their companies stand for and what is their way of doing things (Yanow, Ybema & Sabelis, pp. 13-14, 2011). This paper is an attempt to explore the concept of organisational culture, more importantly, with the practical example of Semco, a Brazilian success story. Most of the paper will focus on introducing the company and explaining in culture with different elements of its culture. Furthermore, the paper will also briefly attempt to apply a few models and theories of organisational culture on t he company allowing having a better understanding of Semco’s organisational culture. Discussion Company History and Profile Semco was a small bureaucratic company from Brazil, founded in the year 1953, started off with specializing in the business of manufacturing centrifuges for the vegetable oil industry. During the1960, the company jumped into the business of hydraulic pumps, load pumps, axles and other components for the naval industry, considering the growth of Brazilian naval industry. Antonio Kurt Semler, an Austrian engineer and the founder of the company always wanted his son Richardo Semler to take interest in the company’s operations and take over... This essay stresses that Semco is a fascinating company and what makes it so interesting and attractive is its organisational culture, which is almost one of its kinds. Even as of today, there are many American and European companies which are researching on Semco, trying to understand the real cause of its success and planning to apply its concepts, approaches, theories and models in their organisations as well. Over the past three decades, under the leadership of Semler, Semco has created such an organisational culture, which is exactly in line with the ideas and vision of its founder. This report makes a conclusion that Semco is about realizing the true potential of individuals, helping them in being as creative as possible and doing something different. Even, when the companies, which are highly centralized and extensively controlled by the senior management, want to generate new ideas, be creative, and create something new, they make autonomous teams and allow them to work freely. Semler has just expanded that idea from a few occasional work teams to the entire company. Semco has successfully created an organisational culture, which has the capacity to support the organisational goals of the company. Ironically, the most important goal of the company is not to bind their employees with goals, targets and other managerial â€Å"mumbo jumbo†. Therefore, the company does not need any radical changes in its culture in the near future; however, the company has to ensure that it is also ready for circumstances.

Implementation of Public Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Implementation of Public Policy - Essay Example There present study has been conducted to understand the loopholes of the present education system and provide some recommended solutions. The education system is one of the support pillars for economic prosperity for any economy. Therefore the administrative bodies try to cement the pillars which will bring future prospects for the society. In this paper the focus of attention will rest upon the tuition policy practices and the effective policies that might improve the policy. Countries generally tend to follow the combination of tuition as well as the student aid programs with the aim to regulate the enrolment rate which will open up the opportunities for higher education. In this fashion proper education can be provided towards all income groups. Identifying ineffective public policy A good education is worth investing and this has always been true. Providing quality education to the citizens of the country is all about turning vision into reality. At this point of time, one of th e major problems faced by the people of the country as far as the education system is concerned actually lies at the very grass root level, i.e. with the schools. The tuition fees imposed by the schools are actually quite high which is difficult to bear for parents belonging to different financial backgrounds. Again the problem is higher fees do not guarantee quality education. In fact the tuition policies followed by some of the schools are not advanced. The teacher student ratio is alarming and signifies the fact that major portion of students literally lacks caring. The American kids are devoid of getting quality or great schools simply because at this point of time there is not enough clarity around the ultimate objective of schooling. Here lies the concern. USA being a developed country will have to maintain sustainable economic policies. Children, being the future the society must be provided with quality education and they are the ones who will take the responsibility of the country in times to come. At an ideal school the educational professionals would understand that the mission is to help the children from a cognitive as well as social point of view. Also the physical, emotional and ethical perspectives should also be kept in mind. However, right now in USA it is all about cognitive growth. The American Schools are failing because the schools are looking to suppress the students into a compliance based educational model. Children are natural learners and are actually at the young age the children tend to have a lot of creativity, curiosity and intrinsic motivation. But various research studies have shown that the American public schools resemble that of prisons and as a result after certain years of formal schooling the inherent qualities of the students are dying. The willingness to learn of the students is an important aspect. The American schools are failing to provide the right environment and the right policies that keep the willingness to lear n alive. There have been various educational reform movements that have focused one side of the coin, i.e. the problem of educational inequality. There is very little doubt that educational inequality is a very serious problem. However, that is the not the only core issue. Such movements for some reason have totally undermined other important issues like support for underachieving students, improvements of the skills set of the teachers,

Genetics and Linguistics in Mesolithic-Neolithic Transition

Genetics and Linguistics in Mesolithic-Neolithic Transition Introduction Population movement may be utilised to reconstruct activities during the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition. Recent research particularly that relating to genetics and isotopic analysis, has been employed to assist in this tracking of movement, though issues with this process have arisen, as will be discussed below. Generally when analysing the transition archaeologists have tended to focus primarily on a change in economy, compiling set criteria which indicate either Mesolithic people or Neolithic people, and leaving very little room for additional interpretations. Though efforts are now being employed to allow for other interpretations. The scientific approach, encompassing both genetics and linguistics, when combined with archaeological methods can provide a window into human movements during the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition. Linguistics clearly would have constituted a huge element of culture and social differentiation from other groups or ethnicities (or inclusion within your ow n group), though evidence of linguistics is vague and circumstantial at present. The archaeology of the transition has been the main focus, which is likely because it is the most tangible evidence which remains. However it is important to remember that this is also subject to the bias of interpretation. While addressing the benefits and draw backs of genetics and linguistics we need to remain aware of the general questions surrounding the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition. Was the transition the result of a movement of farmers, foragers who adopted farming or was it a combination of the two? At what speed did the transition occur, was it a gradual or rapid affair? Furthermore the classification of the Neolithic package, which refers to, agriculture, domestic animals, polished stone tools, pottery and settlement, are also often questioned. This is directly linked to the question of what we classify as Mesolithic or Neolithic. The recent trend has focused primarily on the mosaic nature of the transition, examining it in a very detailed manner. While this is a valid method archaeologists must be consistently conscious that results derived from individual sites do not necessarily represent larger scale activity (Robb and Miracle, 2007). Genetics, Archaeology and Mobility during the Mesolithic-Neolithic Transition: Past genetic processes have embedded specific signatures in the genes of modern populations. Therefore genetic data has the capability to further inform our knowledge of the transition. Increasingly archaeologists have accepted the importance of acknowledging the variety, messiness and localness of the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in direct contrast to those looking specifically at the bigger picture. Amongst those looking at the larger scale view are geneticists and scientists (Cooney, 2007). The study of genetics, is the science of hereditary and variation in organisms, Y Chromosome (male) and Mt DNA (female). The following section refers to the term haplotype which is a set of closely linked genetic markers, it is half of a genotype, which is the specific allelic composition of a cell. An allelic is one or more forms of a gene (Everything Bio 2007). Genetic evidence generally includes mitochondrial, Y chromosomal and classical marker evidence derived from modern populations. One of the main issues to be considered when reviewing the data from genetic research is the relatively small data sets in addition to distinguishing patterns within the genetic DNA of modern populations when using them to determine ancient DNA patterns. Nevertheless the modern composition of the European gene pool appears to reflect these early colonising movements more strongly than any other demographic event in prehistory. It has been estimated that around 85 per cent of European mitochondrial sequences probably originated in the upper Palaeolithic of Europe. There have been a number of issues identified with early attempts to use DNA to track mobility of ancient peoples. These were primarily to do with contamination. However it must also be considered that this form of data is statistical and often is recorded and then displayed in huge quantities which in turn complicates the process. Y chromosome is the male line and the mitochondrial DNA is the female line. There is also the additional problem of time depth, as while it is possible to retrieve genetic patterns it is important to note that they are not defined or distinguished in terms of period of existence. So movement of people represented in the data reflects not just the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition but also movement of people in the time since then, such as during the Roman period (Zvelebil 2008). Data from protein markers (sometimes called classical markers) are still more abundant than are data from DNA, although this situation is rapidly changing. Molecular genetic markers have provided previously unavailable resolution into questions of human evolution, migration and the historical relationship of separated human populations. Different evolutionary models are relevant to the different continents. Migration can profoundly affect genomic variation within a population. For most populations are rare exchange of marriage partners between groups occurs and an average of one immigrant per generation in a population is sufficient to avoid fixation of alleles. However, sometimes a whole population (or a part of it) may migrate and settle elsewhere. Thus the frequencies of alleles among the founders of the new population will differ from those of the original population and will inevitably differ again from those among which it settles. The genetic effects of early forager farmer intermarriages would have multiplied themselves through the hundreds of human generation since the Neolithic. Genetic models that tracing backward from modern populations tend to be highly sensitive to relatively small between hunter gatherers and farmers. For example geneticists studying the y chromosome in modern Europeans often argue that Neolithic farming spread primarily through demic diffusion or the migrations of the farmers themselves. In addition geneticists, while studying mitochondrial DNA in modern Europeans, have suggested that there is a large Palaeolithic component in modern Europeans. Thus because the Y chromosome is inherited strictly along the paternal line and mtDNA is inherited maternally, it may be the case that small groups of Neolithic men intermarried with indigenous women. An ancient DNA study appears to support this in that a particular mtDNA haplotype n1a found in early Neolithic female skeletons is comparatively rare among modern Europeans (Bentley 2007). LBK farming, rather than arriving as a wave of advance, is thought to have leap froged from the North East to the Mediterranean. Theories surrounding the movement of LBK farmers tend to suggest that they could move an entire village society 20km or 30 km in a decade but that it would take foragers much longer than this. Foragers are thought to have been mobile over larger territories, for them a distance of 50km may be considered as one journey between one foraging group to the next, but they would encounter many more settled farmers along the way (Robb and Miracle, 2007). It has been proposed that the spread of farming increased local population densities, causing demic expansion into new territory and diffusive gene flow between the Neolithic farmers and Mesolithic groups (Sokal, 1991). It is likely that different regions must have experienced different blends of cultural exchanges and migratory movements. Researchers have the ability to test the effect of factors such as, prehistoric population sizes, rates of gene flow, and mutation rates, on the likelihood of different scenarios. In the near future, they will also allow users to integrate information from the growing body of ancient genetic diversity, in addition to the broad modern data sets (Cavalli-Sforza and Feldman 2003). Demographic growth in the well identified, specific areas of origin of agriculture must have stimulated a continuous peripheral population expansion wherever the new technologies were successful. Demic expansion is the name given to the phenomenon (that is, farming spread by farmers themselves) as contrasted with cultural diffusion (that is, the spread of farming technique without movement of people). Innovations favouring demographic growth would be expected to determine both demic and cultural diffusion. Recent research suggests a roughly equal importance of demic and cultural diffusion of agriculture from the Near East into Europe in the Neolithic period. Molecular studies using mitochondrial DNA, Y chromosome DNA and nuclear DNA differ in their assessment of the contribution of near eastern farmers to the European gene pool. Some mitochondrial DNA studies suggest that the contribution of near eastern farmers to the European gene pool is about 20%, a similar percent 22% is suggested by a y chromosome study. However the same data was re-examined by Chikhi et al. Who found that by using a different methodology, they resulted with an average contribution of between 50% and 60% from near eastern farmers to the European gene pool. Estimations depend not only in the markers employed but also on the model used and its inherent assumptions. Nuclear DNA studies support a European gene pool. Thus many genetic studies d to support the idea of demic diffusion at some level but there is still a lack of consensus with regard to the percentage of the contribution of early near eastern farmers to the European gene pool (Pinhasi et al, 2005). Linguistics and Archaeology, during the Transition Human languages are an integral aspect of behaviour and culture. Phylogenetic trees are constructed from linguistic elements, portray the evolution of languages (Pagel 2009). There is generally a strong correlation between genetic tree clusters and language families. It is likely that language shifts have become more common recently as a result of massive colonisations made possible by development of mobility due to developed infrastructure, transportation and colonisation. In Europe during the nineteenth century much of the archaeological focus of the transition was directed towards classification and sequences of economy. Around the middle of the nineteenth century the whole study of the subject entered a new phase which was linguistic rather than archaeological. It was by now generally assumed that the similarities in the different Indo-European languages were to be explained by their derivation from a single ancestral language, older than Greek or Latin or Sanskrit (Renfrew 1990, p 14). This proto-Indo-European could be reconstructed by studying what was common to specific cognate words in the different languages. Renfrew discusses Childes extreme views published regarded superiority in physique and the vehicles of a superior language (Renfrew 1990, p15-16). Marija Gimbutas has located the Indo European homeland in the Steppes of South Russia. She refers to Kurgan culture and states that it is the last candidate for a Proto-Indo-European homeland based on the common words compiled to reconstruct the original ancient language. Renfrew has difficulty with this as it is still dependent on the construction of the mother language. Renfrew also highlights the problem of how to explain the historical circumstances within which languages would be replaced? Taken in isolation neither archaeological nor genetic evidence can shed much light on the linguistic identity or ethnicity of the colonising population although when combined together some suggestion can be made. It is generally assumed that the western population were either rare indo-European or proto indo-European setting the stage for North central Europe as the homeland of indo Europeans. Large sections of this population in northern Europe would have to adopt indo European speech subsequently from indo European farming groups penetration central Europe from the near east and east Mediterranean as suggested by Renfrew and modified for temperate and northern Europe. Another key figure within the field of linguistics is Oppenheimer. In his text The Origins of the British (2007), he has suggested of Celtic origin, that neither Anglo-Saxons nor Celts had much impact on the genetics of the inhabitants of the British Isles, and that British ancestry mainly traces back to the Palaeolithic Iberian people, now represented best by Basques. He also argued that the Scandinavian input had been underestimated. It has also been put forward that geography and climate have had an influence on the genetics and culture of Britain (Oppenheimer 2007, 21-26). Languages, like genes, provide vital clues about human history. As mentioned already the origin of the Indo-European language family is the most intensively studied, yet still most recalcitrant, problem of historical linguistics. Numerous genetic studies of Indo-European origins have also produced inconclusive results (Gray and Atkinson 2003). Glottochronology is an approach in historical linguistics for estimating the time at which languages diverged, based on the assumption that the basic (core) vocabulary of a language changes at a constant average rate. This term is sometimes interchangeable with lexicostatistics though the latter refers to statistical manipulation of lexical material for historical inferences and is not necessarily associated with dates (Campbell, 2004). It is not usually accepted as a valid methodology, as it has certain inherent issues. The derivation of modern languages mostly or completely from a single language spoken in East Africa does not mean that this was the only language in existence at the time. When analysing Indo-European language data, the following are often included: the ancient Celtic language of Gaul (modern France), within which is a split between Gaulish (Continental Celtic) and the British form (Insular Celtic), with Insular Celtic subsequently splitting into Brythonic (Welsh, Breton) and Goidelic (Irish and Scottish Gaelic). Taken together, the network thus suggests that the Celtic language arrived in the British Isles as a single wave (and then differentiated locally), rather than in the traditional two-wave scenario (P-Celtic to Britain and Q-Celtic to Ireland). In 1786 Sir William Jones discovered remarkable similarities between Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, Celtic, and Persian, indicating a common source for these languages, possibly Indo-European language. Then in 1863 Schleicher proposed an evolutionary tree of descent for the Indo-European language family, followed by Charles Darwin who introduced the evolutionary tree concept to the descent of species. Schmidt (1872) published the wave model which denotes that distinct languages increasingly acquire similarities through borrowing. More recently it has been proposed to unite these two models into a single network diagram of language evolution (Forster and Toth, 2003). Conclusion Simple explanations at odds with a complex human history Critique: complex data, requires degree of manipulation to display How does this relate to and affect archaeology? And what we know about mobility and migration during the transition? Confusion between names and genetics. Ancient dna NIa very rare in Europe, haplotype, example that lineages do die out and not all colonisation works. This is further complicated when you look at animals. Cattle and pigs are descendnt fomr the north east but pigs are descendant from a combination of north west domestication. Bear deliberately introducted to Ireland. The past decade of advances in molecular genetic technology has heralded a new era for all evolutionary studies, but especially the science of human evolution. Data on various kinds of DNA variation in human populations have rapidly accumulated. Haploid markers from mitochondrial DNA and the Y chromosome have proven invaluable for generating a standard model for evolution of modern humans. Co-evolution of genes with language and some slowly evolving cultural traits, together supports and supplements the standard model of genetic evolution. The advances in our understanding of the evolutionary history of humans attests to the advantages of multidisciplinary research (Cavalli-Sforza and Feldman 2003). Reference List Bentley, R.A. Price, T.D. and Stephan, E. (2004) Determining the local 87 Sr/86 Sr range for archaeological skeletons a case study from Neolithic Europe, in Journal of Archaeological Science 31, 365-375. Bentley, A. 2007 Mobility, specialisation and community diversity in the linearbandkermik: isotopic evidence from the skeletons, proceedings of the British academy 144, 117-140. http://www.everythingbio.com/glos/definition.php?ID=3035 Campbell, L. 2004 Historical Linguistics An Introduction, Great Britain: Edinburgh University Press p201 Zvelebil, M. (2008) Innovating hunter gatherers: the Mesolithic in the Baltic. In: Baily G. And Spikins, P. (ed.) Mesolithic Europe, New York: Cambridge University Press, pp 18-59. Gray, R. And Atkinson, Q.D. 2003 Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin, Nature Reviews Genetics, 426, 435-439, online, accessed 20/03/10. Pagel, M. (2009) Human language as a culturally transmitted replicator, Nature Reviews Genetics, 10, 405-415, online, accessed 23/03/10. Forster, P. and Toth, A. 2003 Towards a phylogenic chronology of ancient Gaulish, Celtic and Indo European, proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of America, online access 28/03/10. Renfrew, C. 1990 Archaeology and Language: the puzzle of Indo-European origins Cambridge University Press: united kingdom, 14-20. Cavalli-Sforza, L. And Feldman, M. 2003 The Application of Molecular Genetic Aproaches to the Study of Human Evolution, in Review Nature Genetics 33, 266-275. Oppenheimer, S. 2007 The origins of the British: a genetic detective story, Robin Publishing: London, pp 21-26. Barbujani, G and Chikhi, L. 2006 DNAs from the European Neolithic in Heredity 97, 84-85, online, accessed 20/10/10. Cooney, G. (2007) Parallel worlds or multi-stranded identities? Considering the process of going over in Ireland and the Irish Sea zone. In: A. Whittle and V. Cummings (Ed.). Going Over: the Mesolithic-Neolithic Transition in North-West Europe,London: British Academy pp. 543-566. Robb, J. And Miracle, P. 2007 Beyond migration versus acculturation new models for the spread of agriculture, Proceedings of the British Academy 144, 99-115. Sokal, R. Oden, N. And Wilson, C. 1991 Genetic evidence for the spread of agriculture in Europe by demic diffusion, in nature 351, 143-145, online accessed 22/03/10.

Go Ask Alice Essay -- essays research papers

Go Ask Alice, written by an anonymous author, is a diary kept by a fifteen-year-old drug user. The author, through this book, doesn’t wants his readers to look for advise in it, but to learn about the real world in which some teenagers have to live through. Alice, the main character, made the worst mistake ever and radically changed her life around to fit in with the crowd . She is soon exposed to drugs, sex and violence. It is a battle that Alice can win, but sometimes as much as you want something, the environment around you can pull you back. The author emphasizes the fact that you should never trust anyone, not even your own shadow. You never know what life has prepared for you, and sometimes it’s not always the best. The fact that someone is your friend doesn’t mean they can’t become your enemy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This book mainly takes place in Chicago, during the 60’s era. Alice is a young teenager who lives a normal life and has a good up-bringing. Her family gives her all the support to succeed and is always there for her. She loves boys, wearing nice clothes, and basically being your average everyday girl. As she moved into a new town, she began making new friends and one of those was Jan. She looks like a nice and popular girl. Jan has a way of influencing others into new trends and Alice is so excited to be accepted by her popular crowd, that she begins spicing up her lifestyle. Chris is another one of her new friend an...